Do animals feel love, anger, or empathy? Researchers have long dismissed such ideas as anthropomorphism, arguing that attributing human emotions to animals was unscientific.But as we learn more about animal sentience, that’s starting to change — and, in the process, we’re learning more than ever about the complex inner lives of animals, including why we may be more alike than we once thought.On this encore episode, we explore what researchers have discovered about what’s really going on inside other species’ heads. We talk with a primatologist about why she believes baboons and other animals possess a theory of mind; investigate whether crabs, lobsters, and shrimp are capable of experiencing pain; and hear about one beagle’s journey from lab subject to pet. Host Maiken Scott and reporter Alan Yu visit the Chamounix Equestrian Center in Philadelphia to test an app that claims to detect pain in horses. When primatologist Christine Webb was in college, she was taught that it was “unscientific” to investigate animal emotions — but that attitude has started to change. We talk with Webb about what’s causing that shift, what she learned from her mentor, the famed primatologist Frans de Waal, and the challenges involved with stepping outside our human biases to understand the inner lives of animals. Webb is an assistant professor in the Department of Environmental Studies at New York University, and her new book is “The Arrogant Ape: The Myth of Human Exceptionalism and Why it Matters.” Reporter Sophia Schmidt pays a visit to the Elmwood Park Zoo in Norristown, Pennsylvania to meet an unlikely pair of besties: Hunter, the red-tailed hawk, and Stan, the turkey vulture. We hear about why Hunter and Stan’s relationship is so rare, how they became friends (and, sometimes, more than friends), and what biological factors could be driving their behavior. It’s easy enough to believe that animals like cats and dogs have feelings — but what about less cuddly creatures, like crabs, lobsters, and shrimp? Pulse reporter Liz Tung talks with researchers who’ve been investigating the question of sentience in decapod crustaceans, and whether or not they’re capable of feeling pain. We talk with journalist Melanie Kaplan about her investigation into the world of animal research, spurred by her adoption of Hammy — a beagle who spent the first four years of his life in a lab. Her book is, “Lab Dog: A Beagle and His Human Investigate the Surprising World of Animal Research.”

Erica Gerard tried to find the right antidepressant for over two decades, one where the benefits outweighed the side effects. Finally, she decided to get off her medication. What followed was a harrowing journey she was not prepared for. On this episode, what people should consider before quitting. We also explore whether new tools could help doctors better match patients with medications. Journalist Erica Gerard was first prescribed Prozac in college after years of feeling sad, lonely and disconnected from her peers. The medication helped — but it also left her constantly exhausted and feeling as though she was watching her own life from behind a screen. After more than two decades, she decided she wanted to stop taking the medication. She documented her journey for The Pulse, and what she learned about tapering off safely. A new federal initiative aimed at getting Americans off antidepressants has put a spotlight on this issue. Psychiatrist Jonathan Slater joins us to discuss the complexities of de-prescribing these medications. He says there’s a lack of training and guidelines for tapering off safely, adding that the process requires individualized, monitored care with psychological support. When a mental health issue made it impossible for British author Madeline Dyer to focus on her writing career, a physician suggested she should try an antidepressant. She was reluctant to give it a shot, fearing it would make her less creative. The medication ended up helping her a lot, but she says it impacted her genre of choice.

In some ways, our imagination is like an all-access pass. It can transport us to a different place, it allows us to picture a beautiful beach, or a lush flower garden. We can envision what our lives may look like in the future or revisit the past. Psychologist Cassandra Vieten argues that using our imagination is not about immersing ourselves in a fantasy world. It’s a powerful tool that affects our physical and mental health, our relationships with others, and life trajectories and careers. Vieten joins us to talk about her research, and her new book, “Imagine That: Transform How You Think, Feel, and Live with the Science of Imagination.”

We tend to think that creativity flourishes in the absence of limits, when we have all of the freedom to innovate and dream big. But what if the opposite is true? What if constraints — from strict rules to tight deadlines — actually make us more creative?On this episode, we explore how limitations force us to think differently, solve problems in unexpected ways, and allow us to create our best work. We talk with science writer David Epstein about his new book “Inside the Box: How Constraints Make Us Better.”He explains how restrictions led to the invention of everything from impressionism to the iPod, and how to develop rules and limits for your own creative work that could encourage innovation.

Millions of people in the U.S. have chronic pain that’s unresponsive to medical interventions. But there are new and comprehensive ways of treating pain. We explore how emotions, stress, sleep, and diet impact pain, a new option for easing labor pain, and emerging research that could reduce the addictive properties of opioids. We often think of pain as a physical ailment — but newer research shows that pain has as much to do with our brains as it does our bodies. We talk with pain researcher and psychologist Rachel Zoffness about how emotions shape — and construct — our experience of pain, and how identifying the unique biopsychosocial factors contributing to pain can ultimately help patients overcome it. Her new book is "Tell Me Where It Hurts: The New Science of Pain and How to Heal." Giving birth is one of the most painful things many people will experience — which is why a majority of expectant mothers choose epidurals, IV opioids, or both to manage their pain. But recently, another option has been making its way into the delivery room— nitrous oxide, also known as laughing gas. Reporter Andrew Stelzer explains how N02 stacks up against its competitors, and why a growing number hospitals in the U.S. are offering it as an option. Opioids work well on all kinds of pain — but, as the last few decades have shown, they also pose a severe risk of addiction. We talk with neuroscientist and addiction researcher Anjali Rajadhyaksha about a recent discovery that could make opioids safer.

Vacations are a time to experience new things, and restore our minds and bodies — but sometimes the opposite happens. On this episode, when vacations wreck your health — and how to deal. We hear about evidence-based ways of overcoming jet lag, tips for avoiding "vacation constipation,” surviving the cruise from hell, and what's behind snorkeling deaths in Hawaii.SHOW NOTES: We hear from listeners about their worst vacation-related health incidents, ranging from chicken pox to head injuries. Ahead of an international trip, Pulse host Maiken Scott talks with Olivia Walch, a researcher at University of Michigan and CEO of a circadian rhythm startup called Arcascope, about the biological processes behind jet lag, and evidence-based tips on how to prevent the worst of it. Ever notice that your first couple days on a trip, you become a little … backed up? Pulse producer Nichole Currie talks with neurogastroenterologist Trisha Pasricha about what causes “vacation constipation,” and how to overcome it. Pasricha’s new book is “You’ve Been Pooping All Wrong: How to Make Your Bowel Movements a Joy.” Listen to their full interview. As avid globetrotters, Gay and Phil Courter always loved going on cruises — until their trip got taken over by an unexpected threat. Pulse reporter Liz Tung recounts the story of how they ended up trapped on a cruise they didn’t want to be on — and how they ultimately escaped. Watch their documentary on the experience, or read Gay’s book. Of all the adventurous activities on offer while traveling — from volcano trekking to whitewater rafting — there's one that might be a bit more dangerous than you'd expect: snorkeling. We talk with Caitlin Thompson, an investigative reporter for Honolulu Civil Beat, about Hawaii’s perplexing number of snorkeling deaths, and the potential causes.

Investigators have long relied on science to help solve crimes, from fingerprint and blood splatter analysis to the psychology of criminal minds. But not every investigative technique rests on solid scientific ground. On this episode, how science is used in criminal investigations, and what happens when these methods aren’t as reliable as we might think. For years in Hollywood, a kind of mythology has been growing around a specific kind of investigator: FBI behavioral analysts, better known as criminal profilers — agents specially trained in psychology to help decode the minds of serial offenders. In TV shows and movies, they’re shown making brilliant, almost miraculous, connections that ultimately help catch the bad guy. But how accurate are these depictions? Pulse reporter Liz Tung explores the history of criminal profiling, how it works, and what’s behind longstanding criticisms of its methods. In 2004, the FBI was called in to assist on an investigation into a series of terrorist train bombings in Madrid. The agency connected the fingerprints gathered to a lawyer in Oregon, ultimately arresting him. There was just one problem: They’d nabbed the wrong guy. The attorney was ultimately released and received a settlement, but the fallout wasn’t over. Pulse reporter Alan Yu explores how the blunder led to efforts to create standards for evidence collection. Jens Ludwig, director of the University of Chicago’s Crime Lab, was taking his dog for a walk, when an unleashed dog came charging towards him. Ludwig started screaming at the dog's owner, his neighbor - the conflict was broken up by a campus security guard. The incident left Ludwig shaken — how did he spiral into such sudden, almost uncontrollable, rage? And what did it say about the deadliest manifestation of such rage — American gun violence? We talk with Ludwig about what his exploration turned up, from how our brains switch from rational to enraged, to what causes eruptions of gun violence — and what strategies could help stop it. Ludwig's new book is “Unforgiving Places: The Unexpected Origins of American Gun Violence.”

When twin brothers Trevor and Kyle Ritland were children, their father — a biologist — would tell them stories about a mythical creature that lived high in the misty mountains of Costa Rica: the golden toad. The toad was elusive, he told them — but for a few weeks every spring, hundreds of them would emerge from the shadows to mate, lighting up the dense forest like brilliant spots of fire. Until one day, the golden toad vanished — never to be seen again.It’s mysteries like these that have drawn scores of researchers out of their labs and into the wild — tugging them to explore, to climb distant mountains, to venture into faraway forests and discover or rediscover a creature, a place, some new clue.On this encore episode, we hear stories of those adventures. We talk with Trevor and Kyle about their quest to find out what happened to the golden toad — and what they ultimately discovered. We hear the epic tale of writer Kim Frank’s travels to India in search of wild Asian elephants. And we talk with conservation ecologist Ryan Almeida about how the global wildlife trade is affecting certain species and their habitats. We talk with brothers Kyle and Trevor Ritland — a writer and documentary filmmaker, respectively — about their search for the mythical golden toad, a presumed-extinct species that hasn’t been seen for over three decades, and what they learned in their travels through the cloud forests of Costa Rica. Their book is “The Golden Toad: An Ecological Mystery and the Search for a Lost Species.” About 10 years ago, writer Kim Frank set out to understand why wild elephants were trampling people in India. But her journey and the human-wildlife conflict was far more complex than she imagined — taking her down dead ends, meeting with an Indian princess, and finally coming face-to-face with the forest giants. They’re the kind of animals you only expect to see in documentaries — green anacondas; giant alligator snapping turtles; even the deadly black mamba — but around the world, millions of these often-dangerous animals are sold as pets. We talk with conservation ecologist Ryan Almeida about what fuels the wildlife trade, its effects on native habitats, and what happens when these pets escape into new ecosystems.

At the best of times, alcohol makes us feel great — relaxed and gregarious, warm and fuzzy, happy and confident. But at the worst of times, it can morph into a serious problem, damaging our relationships, our health, and our lives as a whole. On this encore episode, we explore our relationship with alcohol. Why we consume it, how it affects us, and when it’s time to quit.We talk with surgeon and recovering alcoholic Charles Knowles about how booze affects our brains and health, and what finally pushed him to give up alcohol for good; we hear about a trend known as “California sober,” and why so many people are embracing it; and we find out how zero-proof cocktail bars are helping some people socialize without the booze.Charles Knowles was barely a teen when he discovered the power of alcohol to transform him from a shy outsider into the life of the party. But as he got older, and sank deeper into drinking, alcohol stopped being fun — and started affecting his health and his life. We talk with Knowles, a surgeon and physician, about what makes some people more vulnerable to problematic drinking, how alcohol affects our brains, and how his life changed once he stopped drinking. Knowles’ book is “Why We Drink Too Much: The Impact of Alcohol on Our Bodies and Culture.”For a lot of former drinkers, “sobriety” means total abstinence — no alcohol, or any other substances that produce a similar buzz. But recently, a new, more permissive version of sobriety has been gaining popularity: “California sober.” It involves embracing cannabis and psychedelics as a means of avoiding alcohol and hard drugs. Reporter Andrew Stelzer tracks the origins of this phenomenon, why some people find it helpful, and what researchers have to say about it.One of the hardest parts about sobriety for a lot of people is dealing with the social impact. Not only is alcohol a social lubricant — it’s often at the center of social events themselves. But recently, some entrepreneurs have been creating alternatives in the form of zero-proof cocktail bars. Pulse reporter Alan Yu visits Philadelphia’s Bar Palmina to find out who goes there, and why.

Two hundred and fifty years ago, Philadelphia was not just the center of political revolution, but a hub of scientific discovery. For America’s founders, science was more than a pastime — it was a way of understanding the world and the natural laws that shaped it. On this episode, we explore how science and innovation helped give birth to a new nation.We visit the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia to explore how tracking the transit of Venus in 1769 became a major success for astronomers in the colonies, one that put American science on the map. We’ll also hear about efforts to find the exact location of the observatory that once stood near Independence Hall — the place some people say was the location where the Declaration of Independence was read out loud for the first time.The first sentence of the Declaration of Independence cites, “Laws of Nature and of Nature's God,” but what exactly does that mean? Caroline Winterer, Professor of History and American Studies at Stanford University joins us to discuss the ideas that allowed the Founders to bridge the gap between physical science and political governance, effectively inventing our modern concepts of society and inalienable rights.We dive into the story of the "Turtle," the first submarine used in combat which was invented during the Revolutionary War. Reporter Alan Yu explains the many innovations contained in this small vessel, and its daring first mission. Then Host Maiken Scott travels to The International Spy Museum in Washington, D.C., to see a replica of the craft.We head into the kitchen with three prominent Black Philadelphia chefs, Omar Tate, Angie Brown, and Shola Olunloyo, to reconstruct an iconic dish that fueled the revolution: Philadelphia pepper pot soup. Reporter Justin Kramon tells the story of this dish, and how people are keeping its memory alive.